The United Nations Ad-hoc Committee for Development of an International Cybercrime Convention: Overview and Key Observations from Week II of the Fifth Substantive Session

Sukanya Thapliyal

In Part I of the two-part blog series, we briefed our readers on the developments that took place in the first week of the Fifth Session of the Ad-Hoc Committee. In Part II of the series, we aim to capture the key discussion on provisions on (i) technical assistance, (ii) preventative measures, (iii) final provisions and (iv) the Preamble.

1. Provisions on Technical Assistance:

The Chapter on Technical Assistance listed down provisions including, general principles of technical assistance, and provision setting the scope of technical assistance (Training and technical assistance, exchange of information, and implementation of the Convention through economic development and technical assistance). The provisions listed under this Chapter highlight the importance of technical assistance and capacity building for developing countries. Further, the provisions also lay down obligations and responsibilities on the State Parties to initiate, develop and implement the widest measure of technical assistance and capacity-building that includes material support, training, mutual exchange of relevant experience and specialised knowledge, among others. 

All of the Member Countries and non-member Observer States were in agreement on the importance of the Chapter on technical assistance as an essential tool in combating and countering cybercrime. Technical assistance and capacity building helps in developing resources, institutional capacity, policies and programmes that help in mitigating and preventing cybercrime. A number of developing countries including, Iran, China, Nigeria, South Africa provided suggestions such as inclusion of “transfer of technology” and “technical assistance” to the existing text of the provisions in order to effectively broaden the scope of the chapter. 

On the other hand, several developed countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Norway, and Australia emphasised that provisions relating to technical assistance and capacity building should be voluntary in nature and should avoid an overly prescriptive approach. It should rather be based on mutual trust, be demand-driven, and correspond to nationally identified needs and priorities. These State Parties accordingly provided alternative provisions on similar lines for the said Chapter for the consideration of Member Countries and the Chair. 

The fifth session of the Ad-Hoc committee witnessed advanced discussions on technical assistance. Previously, technical assistance was discussed in the third session of the ad-hoc committee where discussions primarily revolved around the submission/ proposals from the Member Countries and non-member observer States. The CND presented ahead of the fifth session was well articulated and neatly organised into various provisions outlining the scope and mechanisms for technical assistance and capacity building to meet the objectives of the Convention.

2. Provisions on Preventative Measures: 

The provisions charted out under the Chapter on the Preventative Measures (Article 91 to 93 of CND) included general provisions on prevention, establishment of authorities responsible for preventing and combating cybercrime, and prevention and detection of transfers of proceeds of cybercrime. The chapter underscores the role of effective preventative measures and substantial impact of these measures in attaining the objectives of the proposed convention and reducing the immeasurable financial losses incurred by the States due to cybercrime. 

Majority of State Parties signalled their support on inclusion of the chapter on Preventative Measures. In addition, non-member observer States and the Member States including European Union, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, United States of America made interesting proposals on building effective and coordinated policies for prevention of cybercrime. These Member Countries argued in favour of broadening the current understanding of the term “vulnerable groups”, inclusion of the reference of international human rights, and advocated for developing, facilitating and promoting programmes and activities to discourage persons at risk of committing cybercrime.  

There were interesting proposals aimed at strengthening cooperation between law enforcement agencies and relevant entities (private sector, academia, non-governmental organizations and general public) to counter gender-based violence and mitigate the dissemination of children sexual abuse and exploitation material online. The Member Countries also supported the proposal for Offender Prevention Programmes aimed at preventing (repeated) criminal behaviour among (potential) offenders of cyber-dependent crime.

Member Countries such as China submitted in favour of inclusion of classified tiered measures to provide multi-level protection schemes for cybersecurity. They also called for legislative and other measures to require service providers in their respective territory to take active preventive and technical measures. 

The discussions undertaken in the fifth session of the Ad-Hoc committee were based on the text provided under the CND in the form of concrete provisions wherein various participants provided their detailed submissions on the text. The session also witnessed new proposals on technical assistance such as multi-level protection schemes for cybersecurity, 24*7 network, preventive monitoring to timely detect, suppress and investigate crimes by different Member Countries.

3. Final Provisions

The Chapter on Final Provisions (Article 96-103 of the CND) listed crucial provisions namely, implementation of the Convention, relation with protocols, settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation or implementation of the Convention, and the signature, ratification, acceptance, approval and accession to the Convention. The CND also included provisions relating to the date of enforcement and procedure of amendment to the Convention. 

The Member States and non-members observer States unanimously recognised the importance of the provisions listed under the Chapter on Final Provisions. The non-member observer State and the Member Countries, including the United States of America, Singapore, European Union and others, emphasised that the provision listed under the CND should be in conformity with the existing legal instruments and other existing regional conventions. 

Member Countries such as China and Russia also recognised the importance of the existing legal frameworks. However, these countries further reminded the State Parties that comprehensiveness and universality are the twin goals of this Convention. Therefore, these countries stressed on the need for a “harmonious approach” or a “mutually reinforcing approach” regarding the same. 

Beside this, the Member States also showcased divergent opinions on the minimum number of ratification required for the Convention to come into force. Member Countries, including USA, Norway, New Zealand, Singapore and Canada, have opted for at least 90 ratifications. Member Countries, including Russia, Egypt, China, Brazil, India, and Nigeria, have supported thirty ratifications. Beside these, Japan, United Kingdom, European Union, Ghana and others have opted for forty to fifty ratifications as reasonable for the proposed Convention to come into force. 

The Member Countries supporting wider ratification have submitted that the support of a large number of Member States is indispensable for the success of the prospective Convention. On the other hand, the Member Countries supporting 30 ratifications have focused on the urgency of action in respect of cybercrime and therefore have supported a minimum number of ratifications to get the Convention up and running at the earliest.

Aside from this, Member Countries such as Mexico floated an interesting proposal to devise and incorporate Technical Annexes for ensuring that this Convention adapts and responds adequately to new and emerging challenges. The proposal garnered significant support from other State Parties. 

4. Preamble of the Convention

The CND tabled for the fifth session also featured the draft Preamble for the Convention. Member Countries and non-member observer States unanimously agreed on the inclusion of the Preamble to the prospective convention. The Member Countries maintained that the Preamble is an integral part of the convention and features the purpose and intention of the Convention. 

At the same time, several Member Countries stated that the draft Preamble provided under the CND can be improved further in order to bring more clarity. The Member Countries accordingly provided a wide range of suggestions regarding the same. 

Member Countries such as CARICOM, Norway, Dominican Republic, Kenya, Brazil, suggested that the Preamble should highlight the challenges and opportunities (negative economic and social implications) faced by the Countries with regard to information and communications technologies. Member States including Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore and others proposed the inclusion of – promotion of open, secure, stable, accessible and peaceful cyberspace, application of international law and human rights – in the Preamble of the CND. 

Additionally, Member States suggested the inclusion of denying safe havens to those who engage in cybercrime, prosecuting cybercrimes, international cooperation, collection and sharing of evidence, recovering and returning proceeds of cybercrime, technical assistance and capacity building as key objectives of the Convention. The Member States also recognised the seriousness of use of information and communications technologies violence against women and girls and children; consequently, they called for the inclusion of these concerns in the Preamble of the prospective Convention. 

Way Forward 

The intensive discussion between the Chair, Member States and non-member observer States on various agenda items culminated in the text of the CND being revised. The views expressed will be taken into consideration by the Chair in developing a more advanced draft text of the convention, in accordance with the road map and mode of work for the Committee, adopted at its first session (A/AC.291/7, annex II).

The United Nations Ad-hoc Committee for Development of an International Cybercrime Convention: Overview and Key Observations from Week I of the Fifth Substantive Session.

By Sukanya Thapliyal

Introduction

Last month from April 11-21, 2023, the Ad Hoc Committee to Elaborate a Comprehensive International Convention on Countering the Use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) for Criminal Purpose held its Fifth Session in Vienna. As we reported earlier, the negotiating process has reached a pivotal stage, wherein the Member Countries are negotiating on the basis of a Consolidated Negotiating Document (CND).

The Fifth session of the Ad Hoc Committee was aimed at conducting the second reading of the provisions of the CND which are as follows – 1] international cooperation, 2] technical assistance, 3] preventative measures 4] mechanism of implementation 5] the final provisions, and 6] the preamble. Much like previous sessions, Member States, and non-member observer States were supported and facilitated by the Chair, the Secretariat and multistakeholder group consisting of global and regional intergovernmental organisations, civil society organisations, academic institutions and the private sector.

Over the two-part blog series, we aim to provide our readers with a brief overview and our observations from the discussions during the Fifth substantive session of the Ad-hoc Committee. Part I of the blog captures the consultations and developments concerning the draft chapter on International Cooperation. In addition, we also attempt to familiarise readers with the emerging points of convergence and divergence of opinions among different Member States, non-member observer States and implications for the future negotiation process.

In part II of the blog series, we will be laying out the discussions and exchanges on (i) preventive measures, (ii) technical assistance, (iii) the final provisions; and (iv) the preamble.

Provisions on International Cooperation (Agenda Item 4)
The Chapter on International Cooperation provided under the CND lists 28 provisions subdivided into seven clusters that include a range of provisions such as – 1] general principles on international cooperation and personal data 2] provisions relating to extradition, transfer of sentenced persons and transfer of criminal proceeding 3] general principles and procedure relating to mutual legal assistance 4] provisions relating to expedited preservation and sharing of data and 5] provisions on law enforcement cooperation

Some of our key observations from Week 1 on different draft provisions listed under Chapter on International Cooperation are as follows:

Cluster 1: General principles of international cooperation and protection of personal data

Cluster 1 provisions provided under the chapter on international cooperation listed two provisions namely: (i) General principles of international cooperation and (ii) Protection of personal data.

(i) The general principles of international cooperation: This is an overarching provision applicable to the chapter on international cooperation. The said provision mandates the State Parties to cooperate in matters relating to preventing, detecting, investigating, prosecuting and adjudicating cybercrime. The scope of international cooperation also includes collecting, obtaining, preserving and sharing evidence and is based on the principle of reciprocity and in accordance with the domestic laws of the State parties.

The Member States were broadly in consensus on inclusion of general principles on international cooperation. However there was some disagreement. Some states including European Union, Canada, New Zealand, Australia proposed for narrow application of the chapter extending only to the offences criminalised under the proposed Convention. On the other hand, member Countries including India, and Colombia, were in favour of broader application of the Convention extending to range of cybercrime.

Further, several State Parties including the European Union, United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand also proposed for the mentioning of personal data protection, grounds for refusal of request for extradition or providing assistance within the provision on general principles.

(ii) Protection of Personal Data: The provision on protection of personal data obligates the State Parties to ensure that personal data transmitted on the basis of a request made in accordance with the Convention should only be used for stated purposes such as investigations or proceedings concerning criminal offences and should adhere to data minimisation and purpose limitation. The provision also mandates the State Parties to ensure that such data is protected against loss or accidental or unauthorised access, disclosure, alteration or destruction.

Majority of State Parties were in agreement on inclusion of provision on personal data protection. However, a few Member States including CARICOM, China, Iran, Singapore and the United States were not in agreement on inclusion of this provision stating lack of relevance of the provision to the Convention.

Non-member observer European Union proposed an alternate provision on protection of personal data. The said proposal included a more elaborate set of obligations for the State Parties relating to maintenance of accurate and complete personal data, periodic review of the need for the storage of personal data, requirement for publication of general notices to the persons whose personal data have been collected and provision for effective judicial and non-judicial remedies to provide redressal to affected person.

Cluster 2: Provisions relating to extradition, transfer of sentenced persons and transfer of criminal proceedings

The provision relating to extradition under Cluster 2 under the chapter on international cooperation deals in extradition of a person who is the subject of the request for extradition is present in the territory of the requested State Party. The provision requires that extradition is permissible where extradition sought is punishable under the domestic law of both the requesting State Party and the requested State Party.

A large number of Member States were in agreement on inclusion of the said provision. Additionally, Member States including Nicaragua proposed the addition of political offence and offences punishable with death penalty under domestic laws as grounds of refusal for request of extradition. Beside this, several new proposals regarding expedited extradition, temporary surrender, surrender of property were also placed by Member Countries including Armenia.

Cluster 4- General principles and procedures relating to mutual legal assistance

Cluster 4 of the chapter on international cooperation included provision relating to general principles and procedures relating to mutual legal assistance, establishment of electronic databases on mutual legal assistance requests, spontaneous information, emergency mutual legal assistance, and 24/7 network. The provision outlining general principles laid down the scope, general rules and grounds for refusal of mutual legal assistance. The provision relating to maintaining electronic databases aimed to facilitate access to statistics relating to incoming and outgoing requests for mutual legal assistance involving electronic evidence. Besides this, the provisions relating to spontaneous information, emergency mutual legal assistance, and 24/7 network were also included within the text of CND to set up an effective and efficient system in place.

The Member States were broadly in agreement on inclusion of these provisions within the text of the prospective Convention. In addition, Member States including the European Union, United Kingdom, New Zealand and others proposed some additional grounds for refusal of mutual legal assistance, namely: refusal of request wherein the person affected is in danger being subjected to the death penalty, a life sentence without possibility of parole, torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or where the offence is political in nature.

Cluster 5: Provision relating to mutual legal assistance in expedited preservation of data, stored computer data, expedited disclosure of preserved traffic data and others

The cluster 5 provision placed under chapter on international cooperation listed provisions relating to mutual legal assistance in expedited preservation of data, stored computer data, expedited disclosure of preserved traffic data, accessing stored computer data, and cross-border access to stored data.

A large number of Member States were in agreement on inclusion of these provisions. In addition, there were new proposals relating to Mutual legal assistance in the expedited disclosure of preserved traffic data and expedited production of subscriber information and traffic data by Pakistan and India respectively. The said inclusion was opposed by the United States of America, the European Union, New Zealand, Canada and others.

Cluster 6- Provisions related to law enforcement cooperation, public-private partnership to enhance investigation of cybercrime, joint investigations and special investigative techniques

The provisions listed under Cluster 6 of the Chapter on international cooperation include obligations relating law enforcement cooperation, public-private partnership to enhance investigation of cybercrime, joint investigations and special investigative techniques, among others. The provision on law enforcement cooperation laid the obligation on the State Parties to cooperate closely to enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement action to combat cybercrime. The provision on public-private partnership assists their respective law enforcement agencies in developing appropriate guidelines and cooperating directly with relevant service providers to streamlining cooperation with industry. Further the CND also featured provisions on joint investigations, cooperation through special investigative techniques such as electronic or other forms of surveillance and undercover operations by its competent authorities to provide a lawful basis for collection of such evidence for use in investigations and prosecutions.

The provisions listed under cluster 6 enjoy support by multiple State Parties. However, some of the Member States including the European Union, the United States of America, Japan, Singapore, Canada, Norway, China and others have opposed the inclusion of provision Public-private partnerships to enhance the investigation of cybercrime.

Conclusion

Since the First Session of the Ad-Hoc Committee, the Member Countries have come a long way in arriving at a CND wherein the negotiations are now taking place in a more concrete and cohesive manner. Although Member Countries are still exhibiting diverse views on several provisions, the discussions have arrived at a crucial stage. The sixth session of the Ad-hoc committee is likely to be a watershed moment for the cybercrime convention in defining the finalised text of the convention that will be placed before the 78th session of the United Nation General Assembly in September 2023.

CCG-NLUD’s Statement on International Cooperation to the Fifth Session of the Ad Hoc Committee to Elaborate a Comprehensive International Convention on Countering the Use of Information and Communication Technologies for Criminal Purposes

Sukanya Thapliyal

As an accredited stakeholder to the United Nations Ad-hoc Committee, tasked to elaborate a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) for criminal purposes (“the Ad Hoc Committee”), CCG-NLUD recently participated in the Fifth Session of this key process setting the stage for first universal and legally binding convention on cybercrime.

As we reported earlier, the negotiating process has reached a pivotal stage, wherein the Member Countries are negotiating on the basis of a Consolidated Negotiating Document (CND). The CND is prepared by the Chair of the Ad Hoc Committee and succinctly incorporates various views, proposals, and submissions made by the Member States at previous sessions of the Committee.

The previous sessions of the Ad Hoc Committee witnessed the exchange of general views of the Member States on the scope, and objectives of the comprehensive convention, and agreement on the structure of the convention. This was followed by themed discussions and intense discussions on provisions relating to criminalisation, procedural measures and legal enforcement, international cooperation, technical assistance, preventive measures, among others.

The Fifth Session of the Ad hoc Committee is aimed to discuss the preamble, provisions on international cooperation, preventive measures, technical assistance and the mechanism of implementation and the final provisions. Besides the Member Countries, the multistakeholder group consisting of global and regional intergovernmental organisations, civil society organisations, academic institutions and the private sector are also weighing-in with their inputs to support and contribute to the process.

CCG-NLUD, welcomes the opportunity to submit its comments/ inputs on the present text of “Consolidated negotiating document on the preamble, the provisions on international cooperation, preventive measures, technical assistance and the mechanism of implementation and the final provisions of a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes.” CCG-NLUD presented the following statement on the “provision on international cooperation.”

The provisions on “international cooperation” are the crucial aspects of the Convention as it aims to encourage both formal and informal means of international cooperation for (i) investigation and prosecution of offences covered under this convention as well as (ii) collection of evidence in electronic form of a criminal offence. The CND also draws from common and well understood principles and standards in the areas of extradition, mutual legal assistance, transfer of criminal proceedings, and other effective measures, while being conversant with the divergent realities of participating member countries.

The CND text lays down general principles of international cooperation, specific provisions on extradition, transfer of sentenced persons and detailed provisions detailing mutual legal assistance amongst state legal enforcement agencies. The CND also recognises that the various provisions laid down under the chapter on international cooperation are aligned with the international human rights regime and ensure adequate protection to human rights and other fundamental freedoms.

The chapter aptly lays down the overarching principles in relation to international cooperation for it broadly outlines the scope and objective of international cooperation and recognises that power and procedure outlined under the Chapter are subject to conditions and safeguards pertaining to protection of human rights. The chapter also includes specific provisions relating to protection of personal data transmitted from one State to another and instils other important requirements such as purpose limitation and data minimisation to reduce harms manifesting to individuals.

CCG-NLUD is broadly in agreement with the above-mentioned provisions under the chapter on International Cooperation. However, we conveyed several reservations and concerns as explained below –

In light of the fact that the powers and procedures laid down in the chapter are highly intrusive and interfering, the scope of international cooperation should be restricted to a narrow set of cyber-dependent crimes that satisfy the criteria of “dual criminality”. Further, the chapter should expressly mention “applicable human rights instruments” and other necessary safeguards for protection of human rights and other fundamental freedoms. This will ensure that power and procedure laid out in this chapter are subject to adequate restrictions to protect against potential human rights abuses.

The provision on extradition should apply only in cases of “serious crimes” that include offences punishable by maximum deprivation of liberty of at least four years or a more serious penalty as defined under United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). The Convention should enumerate sufficient evidentiary basis required for extradition and should also make specific references to the applicable international legal instruments such as International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (UN ICCPR) and the UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and ensure adequate protection to human rights and other fundamental freedoms.

The powers and procedures laid down under the Convention mandates the State Parties develop guidelines in relation to the format and duration of preservation of digital evidence and information for service providers. We note that such an authority should not result in data retention for indefinite periods and should not unnecessarily interfere with the data minimisation efforts of service providers. It is important that such guidelines incorporate ex-ante procedures that require independent judicial authorisation, provision for adequate and timely notice to users, measures that are strictly necessary and proportionate to stated aims and an efficient mechanism for redressal, appeal, and review.

Readers can learn more about our submission on international cooperation below:

oral_submission_agenda-item-4_international_cooperation_ccg-nlu-delhi_-to-the-fifth-session-of-ad-hoc-committee-on-cybercrime-1-1.docxDownload

Understanding the Anatomy of Cyber Enabled Crimes and their Governance

Sukanya Thapliyal

1. Introduction: 

Digital systems and Information Communication Technology (ICT) play an increasingly central role in our lives. Technological advancement has created new opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities in digital systems and networks. The resulting cybercrimes can affect everyone, from government and multinational corporations to individuals. As technology continues to make deeper inroads into our lives, cybercriminals are finding unique ways to attack. The continuous evolution in technology has resulted in newer forms of cybercrimes such as Man-in-the-Middle-attack, Bluetooth Man-in-the-Middle attacks, and false data injection attacks, to name a few. This has resulted in a lack of agreement in defining and classifying threats and crimes associated with them. 

Although we lack a uniform and a neat understanding and approach towards addressing cybercrime, a few useful classification tools have been developed in this regard. One such classification tool was developed by Dr Mike McGuire and Samantha Dowling in 2013, wherein cybercrimes were divided into broad categories of “cyber-dependent” and “cyber-enabled” crimes. The cyber-dependent crimes are described as offences that can only be committed with the help of a computer, computer network or an ICT device. These include hacking, DDoS attacks, malware etc. The other category is of cyber-enabled crimes that are traditional crimes whose scope, scale and severity is greatly impacted by the use of computers, computer networks and other devices. Examples include: cyber fraud, cyberterrorism, online child sexual abuse or exploitation material, among others. 

The broad classification of cybercrime into cyber-dependent and cyber-enabled crimes is the central theme in the discussions carried out under the proceedings of the United Nations Ad-hoc Committee, which has been tasked to elaborate a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of ICTs for criminal purposes (“the Ad Hoc Committee”). The discussion around cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crimes are crucial in setting the scope of the convention. Over four different sessions, the Ad-Hoc committee witnessed wide ranging proposals on inclusion of cyber-dependent and cyber-enabled crimes under the proposed convention. Cyber-dependent offences, along with a narrow set of cyber-enabled crimes (online child sexual abuse, sexual extortion, and non-consensual dissemination of intimate images), have garnered broad support. Other cyber-enabled crimes (terrorism-related offences, arms trafficking, distribution of counterfeit medicines, extremism-related offences) have witnessed divergences, and their inclusion is currently being discussed at length. 

This blog piece attempts to investigate the inclusion of cyber-enabled crimes as a specific choke point and why its regulations attract diverse views from the Member States and key stakeholders. The piece ends with specific recommendations and suggestions that may act as possible solutions for countering and combating cyber-enabled crimes. 

2. How Cyber-enabled Crimes have been included under other International Instruments:

Besides the UN Ad-Hoc Committee’s, several regional legal conventions, recommendations, and directives have already been developed in this regard. These have also been a reference point for the proposed convention. These include: African Union Convention on Cybersecurity and Personal Data Protection (Malabo Convention), The Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest Convention), League of Arab States Convention on Combating Information Technology Offences, and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Directive on Fighting Cyber Crime. Besides, there is also the CARICOM Model Legislative Texts of Cybercrimes/ E-crimes and Electronic Evidences that targets the prevention and investigation of computer and network related crime. In addition, the UNODC Report on the meeting of the Expert Group to Conduct a Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime (2021) lays down Recommendations on best practices to address issues of cybercrime through the implementation of legislation and frameworks on effective criminalization, law enforcement and investigation, international cooperation, and prevention. 

International legal instruments (identified above) address an extensive range of cybercrime and criminalised both cyber-dependent and cyber-enabled crimes. The most common cyber-enabled crimes covered under these conventions include attack on computer systems, computerised data breaches, computer-related forgery, and computer-related fraud. The second set of cyber-enabled crimes covered include, offences related to child pornography, crimes that are racist or xenophobic in nature committed through computer systems. The third set of cyber-enabled crimes include offences against privacy, offences related to terrorism committed by means of information technology, and increasing punishment for traditional crimes when they are committed by means of information technology which are covered by a miniscule number of convention (such as League of Arab States Convention on Combating Information Technology Offences). 

3. Languishing Fate of Cyber-enabled crimes in Ad-Hoc Committee Process and Key Challenges in their Governance.

Although the cyber-enabled crimes are widely recognised at the international level, these have acquired only partial success in terms of their incorporation into the work of the Ad-Hoc Committee Process. 

Tracking the Ad-Hoc committee for four consecutive sessions has enabled us to identify the key challenges in incorporating and addressing a wide range of cyber-enabled crimes under the proposed convention. The cyber-enabled crimes such as terrorism-related offences, violation of personal information, extremism-related offences, or content-related crimes lack a common and clear understanding of what it constitutes due to the diverging political, cultural, and legal systems in the Member Countries. Further, these sets of crimes are largely traditional crimes that are often covered under existing international and domestic legislation and incidentally involve the usage of computer systems and ICTs. In the event that these crimes are also incorporated separately in the cybercrime convention, these can conflict with the legal instruments that are already in place. Moreover, content-related offences are broadly- worded, lack a uniform approach, and need more adequate safeguards to protect human rights and other fundamental freedoms. Therefore, binding international criminal instruments such as the Ad-Hoc Committee’s work is not an appropriate forum to address the issues emerging out of cyber-enabled crimes. Instead, these should be addressed via civil and non-legal instruments while ensuring balance with fundamental rights and freedoms. Some cyber-enabled crimes discussed under the Ad-Hoc committee, including extremism-related crimes and terrorist use of ICT technologies, are more umbrella terms that are extremely vague and subjective and pose a threat to widely recognised international human rights. Finally, the provisions related to privacy-related offences are troublesome as they criminalise a broad range of conduct without establishing a legitimate aim and providing sufficient exceptions in favour of students, journalists, cybersecurity researchers, and other public-spirited individuals. 

4. Way Forward and Suggested Solutions 

The vague and highly subjective nature of cyber-enabled crimes, their tense relationship with widely recognised international human rights and lack of sufficient exceptions can be attributed as primary obstructions that inhibit their inclusion in the Ad-Hoc Committee process. Nevertheless, these issues are of crucial importance for a large number of countries participating in the process. Member Countries, including India, Egypt, South Africa, Russia, and China, have repeatedly argued in favour of a broad cybercrime treaty and have also pushed for provisions enabling international cooperation, technical assistance, and capacity building. Lack of adequate procedural and technical competence amongst the state enforcement agencies is hampering them in their societal role, keeping citizens secure, and upholding the rule of law. In such a scenario where it is hard to build consensus in fractious issues as this, and urgency of action in respect of the threat faced by Member States, the pathway through binding international criminal instruments is less than ideal. The Member Countries, therefore, need to devise alternative pathways to address the cyber-enabled crimes though civil or non-legal instruments while keeping up the balance with international human rights and fundamental freedom. 

Another possible route to address cyber-enabled crimes is through Public-Private Leadership. The four sessions of the Ad-Hoc committee allowed us to uncover the growing mistrust and misalignment between the public and the private sector. These key stakeholders exhibit discord and opposing views of each other and are less than beneficial in addressing the critical challenges we face today due to rising cybercrime. Technology companies have latched on to their strong opinion that enforcement agencies cannot be trusted sufficiently with citizen data and digital communication. On the other hand, Member States also need to highlight the day-to-day challenges faced by legal enforcement agencies and promise adequate transparency in their actions. Some Member States have instead advocated in favour of strong obligations on the private sector to cooperate with national authorities. While public-private cooperation is imperative to address these crimes, both entities need to rethink their position, establish a cordial relationship and take up leadership roles that can then be translated into a better and more effective approach to addressing cyber-enabled crimes. 

The United Nations Ad-hoc Committee for Development of an International Cybercrime Convention: Overview and Key Observations from Fourth Substantive Session (Part II)

Sukanya Thapliyal

Introduction 

In Part I of this two-part blog series, we provided our readers a brief overview and observations from the discussions pertaining to the second reading of the provisions on criminalisation of offences under the proposed convention during the Fourth Session of the Ad-hoc Committee. In Part II of the series, we will be laying down our reflections and learnings from the discussions that were held in regard to: (i) General Provisions; and (ii) Provisions on Procedural Measures and Legal Enforcement. We also attempt to familiarise the reader with the emerging points of convergence and divergence of opinions among different Member States and implications for the future negotiation process.

1. General Provisions 

Chapter 1 of the Consolidated Negotiating Document (CND) includes five articles: statement and purposes (article 1), use of terms (article 2), scope and application (article 3), the protection of sovereignty (article 4), and protection of human rights (article 5). In the first round of discussions on General Provisions, the Member Countries, the European Union, in its capacity as observer, and the observers for non-member States provided their preliminary views on different provisions so as to allow the Secretariat to identify provisions that enjoy broad support and others where participants held divergent views. 

Round 1 Discussions

1. Points of Agreement  (Advanced to Second Round of Discussions)

A majority of the participants held positive views on the provisions enlisted under the General Provisions. They sought to strengthen several of these provisions. For example: developing countries including Iran, Jamaica (on behalf of the Caribbean Community), South Africa, and Egypt were in favour of a more elaborate and strongly worded provision on technical assistance. Similarly, several countries including, European Union, Japan, USA, Switzerland, New Zealand, Canada, and others sought (i) strong safeguards for protection of human rights and other fundamental freedoms and (ii) mainstreaming of gender perspective and (iii) consideration of persons and groups vulnerable to cybercrime. 

2. Points of Disagreement  (Subject to Co-facilitated Informal Negotiations)

The discussion witnessed divergences in relation to Article 2 (Use of Terms) of the CND. Countries including India and Russia were in favour of usage of the term “ICT” over “cybercrime” as the former is wider in nature and has been used in UN General Assembly-Resolution 74/247 that established the mandate for the Ad-Hoc Committee. On the other hand, countries including the USA, Japan, Israel, and others were in favour of “cybercrime” for being more widely understood and recognised under the domestic legal framework of various countries and already employed under several international legal instruments. The chair, therefore, took up the decision to pursue the deliberation on the said provision in the co- facilitated informal consultations under the able leadership of Mr H.E. Mr. Rapulane Sydney Molekane, Ambassador and Permanent Representative of South Africa to the United Nations, Vienna, and Mr. Eric Do Val Lacerda Sogocio, Counsellor, Permanent Mission of Brazil to the United Nations, Vienna, and Vice-Chair of the Ad Hoc Committee.

3. Co-Facilitated Informal Consultations 

The co-facilitated informal consultations witnessed detailed deliberations on the use of terminologies to be defined under the draft Convention. The deliberations represented initial exchange of views without prejudice to the future informal discussion. They shall continue ahead of, during and beyond the 5th session to allow for a common understanding on key terms in order to facilitate consensus on several provisions throughout the text of the future convention.

Round 2 Discussions

Further, in the second round of discussion on provisions that enjoy wider support, the participants brainstormed on the final language of the provisions. Several Member Countries proposed terms/ phrases and even provisions that they considered more reflective of their needs and preferences. For instance: Member Countries including Russia, Tajikistan and India proposed the usage of “detect, prevent, suppress and investigate cybercrime/ use of ICTs for criminal use” in place of “prevent and combat cybercrime/ use of ICTs for criminal use.” In addition, India also proposed the usage of “the collection and sharing of electronic and digital information/evidence” in place of “collection of electronic evidence”. Further, countries including Malaysia, Honduras and Singapore proposed for “proper balance between the interests of law enforcement and the respect for fundamental human rights” to the provision detailing the Statement of Purpose for the Convention. Similar proposals were made on provisions relating to protection of sovereignty, respect for human rights and scope of the application respectively.

The discussions relating to General Provision at the Ad-Hoc Committee process do not suffer from irreconcilable differences.  Member Countries have showcased a growing sense of convergence on provisions relating to protection of human rights and other fundamental freedoms. There is also a broad support for mainstreaming the gender perspective within the convention. The Member Countries, however, have outstanding work in relation to definitions and use of terms under the proposed convention. 

II. Provisions on Procedural Measures and Legal Enforcement 

Chapter 3 of the CND laid out provisions for – a] investigation and prosecution of offences, b] collection and sharing of information and electronic evidence, c] conditions and safeguards highlighting the need for and importance of the protection of human rights and liberties, insertion of principles of proportionality, necessity and legality and d] the protection of privacy and personal data for the purposes of the convention. The chapter included 16 articles divided into the following six clusters:

1. Cluster 1: provisions on jurisdiction, scope of procedural measures and conditions and safeguards
2. Cluster 2: procedural measures for expedited preservation of stored data; expedited preservation and disclosure of traffic data, production order, search and seizure, real-time collection of traffic data, interception of content, among others.
3. Cluster 3: procedural measures relating to freezing, seizure and confiscation of assets, establishment of criminal records, protection of witnesses and victims, and compensation for damage suffered.

Round 1 Discussions 

1. Points of Agreement (Advanced to Second Round of Discussions)

In the first round of discussions, the Member Parties unanimously recognised the importance of the provisions on procedural measures and legal enforcement and their role in laying the solid foundation for the practical international cooperation and implementation of this convention. The first round of discussions witnessed a broad agreement on the majority of the provisions under Cluster 1, 2 and 3 of CND. 

Furthermore, several Member Parties, Observer States including the European Union, India, Japan, UK, Norway, Canada, Australia, Kenya, and Israel affirmed their support on the inclusion and further strengthening of Article 42 that lays out Conditions and Safeguards that ensure adequate protection of human rights and liberties, including rights and fundamental freedoms arising from obligations under applicable international human rights law. 

Several Participant Countries also highlighted the close correlation between Article 42 and Article 41 (Scope of Procedural Measures) as being inextricably linked to one another and stated that strong procedural measures must be accompanied by robust human rights safeguards. The participant Member Countries and Observer States were broadly in agreement on inclusion of Article 43 (Expedited Preservation of Stored Computer Data), Article 44 (Expedited Preservation and Partial Disclosure of Traffic Data), Article 45 (Production Order), Article 46 (Search and Seizure) and Cluster 3 provisions (Article 50-55) of the CND. 

2. Points of Disagreement (Subject to Co-facilitated Informal Negotiations)

There was disagreement on the inclusion of Article 40 (jurisdiction), Article 47 (Real Time Collection of Traffic Data), Article 48 (Interception of Content Data) and Article 49 (Admission of electronic/digital evidence) respectively. Member Countries and Observer States and other participants including Switzerland, Japan, USA, European Union, Australia, Norway, UK, Canada raised concerns on Article 40 that allowed for extraterritorial jurisdiction of State and jurisdiction over computer data/ digital or electronic information irrespective of place of storage, screening or processing. As per the participant countries and observer states, such a provision is not in consonance with the traditional understanding of jurisdiction and may not be in alignment with Article 4 (Protection of Sovereignty) enlisted in the CND. 

Further, Member States and Observer States including EU, UK, Japan, Australia, and Norway also raised concerns on inclusion of Article 47 and 48 as these significantly interfere with human rights and are considered to be extremely sensitive in nature.  Singapore, in particular, opposed the inclusion of these provisions and stated that its inclusion has a limited utility and is likely to deter states from signing the final convention. India along with USA, Malaysia, Jamaica on the behalf of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) were in favour of inclusion of these provisions. India, in particular, also requested for the definitional clarity on terms such as “traffic data”. Besides, the participant member countries and observer states were disputed on inclusion of Article 49 and stated that the convention on cybercrime is not appropriate to include issues pertaining to admissibility of electronic evidence and is to be dealt under State’s domestic law and judicial rulings. 

3. Co-Facilitated Informal Sessions 

The chair accordingly delegated the discussion on Article 40, 47, 48 and 49 for the co-facilitated informal negotiation process to be undertaken under the leadership of Mrs. Andrea Martin-Swaby (Jamaica) and Mr. Syed Noureddin Bin Syed Hassim (Singapore).

The co-facilitated informal negotiation process underwent detailed discussions amongst participant Member States, Observer States and multi-stakeholders. The co-facilitators informed the Chair of the various developments that took place during the informal negotiation and that the co-facilitators would conduct intersessional bilateral meetings with delegations and convene additional informal negotiations of the Committee at the 5th Session scheduled in April 2023.

Round 2 Discussions 

Subsequently, in the second round of discussions, several newer contributions were made in the context of provisions laying out Conditions and Safeguards. There was also a proposal for additional provision relating to Retention of Traffic Data and Metadata, and Retention of Electronic Information in CND. Further, additional provisions on Cooperation between national authorities and service providers were also proposed and introduced in the CND for further deliberation. 

The CND and deliberations at the Fourth Session of the Ad-Hoc Committee process crystallised a number of interesting submissions and proposals made by the Member Countries over past sessions. The CND enlisted provisions aimed to redress current challenges faced by the legal enforcement agencies by providing appropriate authority allowing for expedited preservation of Stored Computer Data, expedited preservation and partial disclosure of traffic data, search and seizure, real time collection of traffic data, interception of content data, among others. 

The process, however, also witnessed disagreement on provisions relating to the understanding of jurisdiction, cooperation between national investigating and prosecuting authorities and service providers – as evident from the developments that took place in previous sessions. It is likely that the Secretariat and Member Countries will be continuing these deliberations to build consensus over conflicting issues. 

The Way Forward The proceedings at the Ad-Hoc Committee process have arrived at a critical juncture wherein Member Countries have begun text-based negotiations spearheaded by the Chair and Secretariat. The Ad-Hoc Committee will organise the Fifth Session from 11 to 21 April 2023 in Vienna as an immediate next step. The session will conduct text-based negotiations based on CND on the preamble, the provisions on international cooperation, preventive measures, technical assistance, and the mechanism of implementation, and the final provisions of a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes. The upcoming sessions would be crucial in determining whether and how Member Countries would draw consensus and build toward an effective cybercrime convention that caters to the needs and expectations of the wide variety of countries participating in the UN process.

The United Nations Ad-hoc Committee for Development of an International Cybercrime Convention: Overview and Key Observations from Fourth Substantive Session

Sukanya Thapliyal

1. Background/ Overview 

Last month, the Centre for Communication Governance at National Law University Delhi had the opportunity to participate as a stakeholder in the Fourth Session of the United Nations Ad-hoc Committee, tasked to elaborate a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) for criminal purposes (“the Ad Hoc Committee”). 

The open-ended Ad-hoc Committee is an intergovernmental committee of experts representative of all regions.  It was established by the UN General Assembly-Resolution 74/247 under the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly. The committee was originally proposed by the Russian Federation and 17 co-sponsors in 2019. The UN Ad-hoc Committee is mandated to provide a draft of the convention to the General Assembly at its seventy-eighth session in 2023 (UNGA Resolution 75/282). 

The three previous sessions of the Ad Hoc Committee witnessed the exchange of general views of the Member States on the scope, and objectives of the comprehensive convention, and agreement on the structure of the convention. This was followed by themed discussions and a first reading of the provisions on criminalisation, procedural measures and legal enforcement, international cooperation, technical assistance, preventive measures, among others. (We had previously covered the proceedings from the First Session of the Ad-Hoc Committee here.)

The fourth session of the Ad Hoc Committee was marked by a significant development – the preparation of a Consolidated Negotiating Document (CND) to facilitate the remainder of the negotiation process. The CND was prepared by the Chair of the Ad Hoc Committee keeping in mind the various views, proposals, and submissions made by the Member States at previous sessions of the Committee. It is also based on existing international instruments and efforts at the national, regional, and international levels to combat the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) for criminal purposes. 

As per the road map and mode of work for the Ad Hoc Committee approved at its first session (A/AC.291/7, annex II), the fourth session of the Ad Hoc Committee conducted the second reading of the provisions of the convention on criminalisation, the general provisions and the provisions on procedural measures and law enforcement. Therefore, the proceedings during the Fourth Session involved comprehensive and elaborate discussions around these provisions amongst the Chair, Member States, Observer States, and other multi-stakeholder groups. 

Over the two-part blog series, we aim to provide our readers with a brief overview and our observations from the discussions during the fourth substantive session of the Ad-hoc Committee. Part I of the blog (i) discusses the methodology employed by the Ad-Hoc Committee discussions and (ii) captures the consultations and developments from the second reading of the provisions on criminalisation of offences under the proposed convention. Furthermore, we also attempt to familiarise  readers with the emerging points of convergence and divergence of opinions among different Member States and implications for the future negotiation process. 

In part II of the blog series, we will be laying out the discussions and exchanges on (i) the general provisions and (ii) provisions on procedural measures and legal enforcement. 

2. Methodology used for Conducting the Fourth session of the Ad-Hoc Committee. 

The text-based negotiations at the Fourth Session proceeded in two rounds. 

Round 1: The first round of discussions allowed the participants to share concise, substantive comments and views. Provisions on which there was broad agreement proceeded to Round 2. Other provisions were subject to a co-facilitated informal negotiation process. Co-facilitators that spearheaded the informal negotiations reported orally to the Chair and the Secretariat. 

Round 2: Member Countries progressed through detailed deliberations on the wording of each of the provisions that enjoyed broad agreement. 

3. Provisions on Criminalization (Agenda Item 4)

The Chapter on “provisions on criminalization” included a wide range of criminal offences that are under consideration for inclusion under the Cybercrime Convention. Chapter 2 under the CND features 33 Articles grouped into 11 clusters as:

1. Cluster 1: offences against illegal access, illegal interference, interference with computer systems/ ICT systems, misuse of devices, that jeopardises the confidentiality, integrity and availability of system, data or information;
2. Cluster 2: offences that include computer or ICT-related forgery, fraud, theft and illicit use of electronic payment systems;
3. Cluster 3: offences related to violation of personal information
4. Cluster 4: infringement of copyright.
5. Cluster 5: offences related to online child sexual abuse or exploitation material
6. Cluster 6: offences related to Involvement of minors in the commission of illegal acts, and encouragement of or coercion to suicide
7. Cluster 7: offences related to sexual extortion and non-consensual dissemination of intimate images.
8. Cluster 8: offences related to incitement to subversive or armed activities and extremism-related offences
9. Cluster 9: terrorism related offences and offences related to the distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, arms trafficking, distribution of counterfeit medicines.
10. Cluster 10: offences related to money laundering, obstruction of justice and other matters (based on the language of United Nation Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) and United Nation Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (UNTOC))
11. Cluster 11: provisions relating to liability of legal persons, prosecution, adjudication and sanctions. 

Round 1 Discussions 

1. Points of Agreement (taken to the second round) 

The first round of discussions on provisions related to criminalisation witnessed a broad agreement on inclusion of provisions falling under Cluster 1, 2, 5, 7, 10 and 11. Member States, Observer States and other parties including the EU, Austria, Jamaica (on the behalf of CARICOM), India, USA, Japan, Malaysia, and the UK strongly supported the inclusion of offences enlisted under Cluster 1 as these form part of core cybercrimes recognised and uniformly understood by a majority of countries. 

A large number of the participant member countries were also in favour of a narrow set of cyber-dependent offenses falling under Cluster 5 and 7. They contended that these offenses are of grave concern to the majority of countries and the involvement of computer systems significantly adds to the scale, scope and severity of such offenses. 

Several countries such as India, Jamaica (on behalf of CARICOM), Japan and Singapore broadly agreed on offences listed under clusters 10 and 11. These countries expressed some reservations concerning provisions on the liability of legal persons (Article 35). They contended that such provisions should be a part of the domestic laws of member countries. 

2. Points of Disagreement (subject to Co-facilitated Informal Negotiations)

There was strong disagreement on the inclusion of provisions falling under Cluster 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9. The EU along with Japan, Australia, USA, Jamaica (on the behalf of CARICOM), and others objected to the inclusion of these cyber-dependent crimes under the Convention. They stated that such offenses (i) lack adequate clarity and uniformity across countries(ii) pose a serious threat of misuse by the authorities, and (iii) present an insurmountable barrier to building consensus as Member Countries have exhibited divergent views on the same. Countries also stated that some of these provisions (Cluster 9: terrorism-related offenses) are already covered under other international instruments. Inclusion of these provisions risks mis-alignment with other international laws that are already employed to oversee those areas.

3. Co-Facilitated Informal Round

The Chair delegated the provisions falling under Cluster 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9 into two groups for the co-facilitated informal negotiations. Clusters 3, 4 and 6 were placed into group 1, under the leadership of Ms. Briony Daley Whitworth (Australia) and Ms. Platima Atthakor (Thailand). Clusters 8 and 9 were placed into group 2, under the leadership of Ambassador Mohamed Hamdy Elmolla (Egypt) and Ambassador Engelbert Theuermann (Austria). 

Group 1: During the informal sessions for cluster 3, 4 and 6, the co-facilitator encouraged  Member States to provide suggestions/views/ comments on provisions under consideration. The positions of Member States remained considerably divergent. Consequently, the co-facilitators decided to continue their work after the fourth session during the intersessional period with interested Member States.

Group 2: Similarly for cluster 8 and 9, the co-facilitators, along with interested Member States engaged in constructive discussions. Member States expressed divergent views on the provisions falling under cluster 8 and 9. These ranged from proposals for deletion to proposals for the strengthening and expansion of the provisions. Besides, additional proposals were made in favour of the following areas – provision enabling future Protocols to the Convention, inclusion of the concept of serious crimes and broad scope of cooperation that extends beyond the provisions criminalised under the convention. The co-facilitators emphasised the need for future work to forge a consensus and make progress towards finalisation of the convention. 

Round 2 Discussions: 

Subsequently, the second round of discussions witnessed intensive discussions and deliberation amongst the participating Member Countries and Observer States. The discussions explored the possibility of adding provisions on issues relating to the infringement of website design, unlawful interference with critical information infrastructure, theft with the use of information and communications technologies and dissemination of false information, among others. 

Conclusion:

Since the First Session of the Ad-Hoc Committee, the scope of the convention has remained an open-ended question. Member Countries have put forth a wide range of cyber-dependent and cyber-enabled offences for inclusion in the Convention.  Cyber-dependent offences, along with a narrow set of cyber-enabled crimes (such as online child sexual abuse or exploitation material, sexual extortion, and non-consensual dissemination of intimate images), have garnered broad support. Other cyber-enabled crimes (terrorism-related offences, arms trafficking, distribution of counterfeit medicines, extremism-related offences) have witnessed divergences, and their inclusion is currently being discussed at length. Countries must agree on the scope of the Convention if they want to make headway in the negotiation process. 

(The Ad-Hoc committee is likely to take up these discussions forward in the sixth session of the Ad-Hoc Committee 21 August – 1 September 2023.) 

The United Nations Ad-hoc Committee for Development of an International Cybercrime Convention: Overview and Key Observations from First Substantive Session

Sukanya Thapliyal

Image by United Nation Photo. Licensed via CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Earlier this month, the Centre for Communication Governance at National Law University Delhi had the opportunity to participate as a stakeholder in the proceedings of the United Nations Ad-hoc Committee, which has been tasked to elaborate a comprehensive international convention on countering the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) for criminal purposes (“the Ad Hoc Committee”). 

In this blog, we present a brief overview and our observations from the discussions during the first substantive session of the Ad-hoc Committee. Furthermore, we also attempt to familiarise the reader with the emerging points of convergence and divergence of opinions among different Member States and implications for the future negotiation process. 

1. Background 

The open-ended Ad-hoc Committee is an intergovernmental committee of experts representative of all regions and was established by the UN General Assembly-Resolution 74/247 under the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly. The committee was originally proposed by the Russian Federation and 17 co-sponsors in 2019. The UN Ad-hoc Committee is mandated to provide a draft of the convention to the General Assembly at its seventy-eighth session in 2023 (UNGA Resolution 75/282). 

Presently, the Budapest Convention, also known as Convention on Cybercrime is the most comprehensive and widely accepted legal instrument on cybercrime which was adopted by the Council of Europe (COE) and came into force in July, 2004. However, the work of the Ad-hoc Committee is significant and can pave the way for the first universal and legally binding instrument on cybercrime issues. The Committee enjoys widespread representation from State and Non-State stakeholders (participation from the non-governmental organizations, civil society, academia and private organizations) and other UN bodies, including the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), serving as the secretariat for the process. 

The Ad-hoc Committee, over the next two years, is set to have six sessions towards developing this cybercrime convention. The convention is expected to foster coordination and cooperation among state actors to combat cybercrime while giving due regard to the peculiar socio-economic conditions prevailing in the developing and least-developed countries. 

The first substantive session of the Ad-hoc Committee was scheduled for 28 February-11 March 2022 to chart out a clear road map to guide subsequent sessions. In addition, the session also provided opportunity to the Member States to explore the possibility of reaching a consensus on the objective and scope of the Convention, which could provide a general framework for future negotiation without constituting a pre-condition for future stages. 

2. Discussions at the First Ad-hoc committee

The first session of the Ad-hoc Committee witnessed extensive discussions in sessions on general debate, objective and scope of the convention, exchange of preliminary views on key elements of the convention. In addition, a fruitful engagement took place in the sessions dedicated to arriving at a consensus on the structure of the convention (A/AC.291/L.4/Add.4). Member states also reached consensus on  discussion and decision-making on the mode of work of the Ad Hoc Committee during subsequent sessions and intersessional periods (A/AC.291/L.4/Add.6). As the negotiations commenced days after the Russia-Ukraine conflict began, the negotiations proceeded in a tense environment where several Member States expressed their concerns and-inability to negotiate in “good faith” in the light of the current state of play and condemned Russia for the military and cyber operations directed at Ukraine.

A. Scope of the convention: From “Cyber-Enabled” to “Cyber-Dependent” Crimes 

There was complete agreement on the growing importance of ICT technologies, the threat created by cybercriminals, and the need for a collective response within a sound international framework. However, countries highlighted different challenges that range from ‘pure cybercrimes’ or cyber dependent crimes to a broader set of crimes (cyber-enabled crimes) that includes misuse of ICT technologies and digital platforms by terrorist groups, deepfakes, disinformation, misinformation, false narrative, among others. 

While there was a broad consensus on including cyber dependent crimes, there was significant disagreement on whether cyber-enabled crimes should be addressed under the said convention. This divergence was evident throughout the first session with the EU, the US, the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Liechtenstein, Japan, Singapore and Brazil advocating to limit the operation of such a convention only up to cyber dependent crimes (such as ransomware attacks, denial of services attack, illegal system interference, among others). The member states maintained that the said convention should exclude vague and broadly defined crimes that may dilute legal certainty and disproportionately affect the freedom of speech and expression. Furthermore, that the convention should include only those cyber enabled crimes whose scale scope and speed increases substantially with the use of ICT technologies (cyber-fraud, cyber-theft, child sexual abuse, gender-based crime). 

On the other hand, the Russian Federation, China, India, Egypt, South Africa, Venezuela, Turkey, Egypt expressed that the convention should include both cyber dependent and cyber enabled crimes under such a convention. Emphasizing the upward trend in the occurrence of cyber enabled crimes, the member states stated that the cybercrime including cyber fraud, copyright infringement, misuse of ICTs by terrorists, hate speech must be included under the said convention.

There was overall agreement that cybersecurity, and internet governance issues are subject to other UN multilateral  fora such as UN Group of Governmental Experts (UNGGE) and UN Open Ended Working Group (OEWG) and must not be addressed under the proposed convention. 

B. Human-Rights

The process witnessed significant discussion on the protection and promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms as an integral part of the proposed convention. While there was a broad agreement on the inclusion of human rights obligations, Member States varied in their approaches to incorporating human rights obligations. Countries such as the EU, USA, Australia, New Zealand, UK, Canada, Singapore, Mexico and others advocated for the centrality of human rights obligations within the proposed convention (with particular reference to the right to speech and expression, privacy, freedom of association and data protection). These countries also emphasized the need for adequate safeguards to protect human rights (legality, proportionality and necessity) in the provisions dealing with the criminalization of offenses, procedural rules and preventative measures under the proposed convention. 

India and Malaysia were principally in agreement with the inclusion of human rights obligations but pointed out that human rights considerations must be balanced by provisions required for maintaining law and order. Furthermore, countries such as Iran, China and Russia emphasized that the proposed convention should be conceptualized strictly as a technical treaty and not a human rights convention.

C. Issues pertaining to the conflict in jurisdiction and legal enforcement

The Ad-hoc Committee’s first session saw interesting proposals on improving the long-standing issues emanating from conflict of jurisdictions that often create challenges for law enforcement agencies in effectively investigating and prosecuting cybercrimes. In its numerous submissions, India highlighted the gaps and limitations in the existing international instruments and the need for better legal frameworks for cooperation, beyond Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs). Such arrangements aim to assist law enforcement agencies in receiving metadata/ subscriber information to establish attribution and to overcome severe delays in accessing non-personal data. Member states, including Egypt, China supported India’s position in this regard. 

Mexico, Egypt, Jamaica (on behalf of CARICOM), Brazil, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia also highlighted the need for the exchange of information, and greater international cooperation in the investigation, evidence sharing and prosecution of cybercrimes. These countries also highlighted the need for mutual legal assistance, 24*7 contact points, data preservation, data sharing and statistics on cybercrime and modus operandi of the cybercriminals, e-evidence, electronic forensics and joint investigations. 

Member states including the EU, Luxembourg, UK supported international cooperation in investigations and judicial proceedings, and obtaining electronic evidence. These countries also highlighted that issues relating to jurisdiction should be modeled on the existing international and regional conventions such as the UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crimes (UNCTOC), and the Budapest Convention.

D. Technical Assistance and Capacity Building

There was unanimity among the member states to incorporate provisions on capacity building and technical assistance to cater to the peculiar socio-economic conditions of the developing and least-developed countries. However, notable inputs/ suggestions came from Venezuela, Egypt, Jamaica on behalf of CARICOM, India and  Iran. Venezuela highlighted the need for technology transfer, lack of financing and lack of sufficient safeguards for developing and least-developed countries. The countries outlined technology transfer, financial assistance, sharing of best practices, training of personnel, and raising awareness as different channels for capacity building and technical assistance for developing and least-developed countries. 

E. Obligations for the Private Sector 

The proposal for instituting obligations  on non-state actors , including the private sector (with particular reference to digital platforms and service providers), witnessed strong opposing views by member countries. Countries including India, China, Egypt and Russia backed the proposal on including a strong obligation on the private sectors as they play an essential role in the ICT sector. In one of its submissions, India explained  the increasing involvement of multinational companies  in providing vital services in different countries. Therefore, in its view, such private actors must be held accountable and should promptly cooperate  with law enforcement and judicial authorities in these countries to fight cybercrime. Iran, China and Russia further emphasized the need for criminal liability of legal persons, including service providers and other private organizations. In contrast, member states, including the EU, Japan and USA, were strictly against incorporating any obligations on the private sector. 

F. Other Issues

There was a broad consensus including EU, UK, Japan, Mexico, USA, Switzerland and others  on not reinventing the wheel but building on the work done under the UNCAC, UNCTOC, and the Budapest Convention. However, countries, including Egypt and Russian Federation, were skeptical over the explicit mention of the regional conventions, such as the Budapest Convention and its impact on the Member States, who are not a party to such a convention. 

The proposals for inclusion of a provision on asset recovery, and return of the proceeds of the crime elicited a lukewarm response by Egypt, Iran, Brazil, Russia, China, Canada, Switzerland, USA Jamaica on behalf of CARICOM countries, but appears likely to gain traction in forthcoming sessions.

3. Way Forward

Member countries are expected to submit their written contributions on criminalisation, general provisions, procedural measures, and law enforcement in the forthcoming month. These written submissions are likely to bring in more clarity about the expectations and key demands of the different member states. 

The upcoming sessions will also indicate how the demands put forth by developing, and least developing countries during the recently concluded first session are taken up in the negotiation process. Furthermore, it is yet to be seen whether these countries would chart out a path for themselves or get subsumed in the west and east binaries as seen in other multilateral fora dedicated to clarifying the rules governing cyberspace. 

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Note: 

*The full recordings of the first session of the Ad-hoc Committee to elaborate international convention on countering the use of information and communications (ICTs) technologies for criminal purposes is available online and can be accessed on UN Web TV.

**The reader may also access more information on the first session of the Ad-hoc Committee here, here and here.

Technology & National Security Reflection Series Paper 10: International Responsibility for Hacker-for-Hire Operations: The BellTrox Problem

Anmol Dhawan^*

About the Author: The author is a 2021 graduate of National Law University, Delhi.

Editor’s Note: This post is part of the Reflection Series showcasing exceptional student essays from CCG-NLUD’s Seminar Course on Technology & National Security Law. In the present essay, the author’s contribution serves as an adapted reflection to the following proposition:

“From the standpoint of international law, does the Government of India bear any international legal responsibility for the actions of BellTrox InfoTech Services (or any other similar ‘hackers-for-hire’ operations run from Indian territory)? If yes, what are the legal prerequisites that need to be satisfied to affix such responsibility on the Government? If not, explain with reasons.” 

1. INTRODUCTION 

In 2020, The Citizen Lab released a report naming an obscure Delhi-based company, Belltrox Infotech Services, as a major player in commercial espionage operations against high-profile organizations as a hacker-for-hire entity. The targets included nonprofits and advocacy groups working on issues like climate change and net neutrality in the US, such as the Rockefeller Family Fund, Free Press, and Greenpeace.

Such cyber-espionage activities, inter alia, highlight the uncertainty in the application of international law in cyberspace. An analysis of BellTrox’s alleged operations raises questions as to whether there is an internationally wrongful act for which responsibility needs to be affixed, who bears such responsibility, and to what extent. 

As per Article 2 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (‘ARSIWA’), a State is responsible for an internationally wrongful act when it commits an act or omission fulfilling two basic criteria. First, the act or omission is attributable to that State; and second, it constitutes a breach of that State’s international obligation. 

Accordingly, this piece analyses the nature of attribution in the cyber context, the problems therein, and whether current frameworks take account of the unique nature of cyber-attacks vis-à-vis hacker-for-hire situations. Further, the article evaluates whether low-level cyber-attacks such as BellTrox’s constitute a breach of an international obligation, with particular reference to the principles of sovereignty and non-intervention. Finally, the piece attempts to distill shortcomings under the international law regime governing cyberspace and considers avenues to bridge the gaps. 

“Hackers (pt. 1)” by Ifrah Yousuf is licensed under CC BY 4.0. From CyberVisuals.org, a project of the Hewlett Foundation Cyber Initiative.

2. ATTRIBUTION 

Attribution is a normative operation used to demonstrate a nexus between the perpetrators of an act and a State. Although conduct under ARSIWA is limited to acts of State organs, Article 8 states that the wrongful conduct of a non-State entity directed or controlled by that State may be attributable to the State.

Traditionally, such attributability was restricted to activities carried out under a State’s ‘effective control’. As applied by the International Court of Justice (‘ICJ’) in Nicaragua, the effective control test requires a State to have, directed, commanded, or otherwise directly controlled the actor in question. The Tallinn Manual also follows this threshold for attribution in cyberspace. However, BellTrox’s conduct cannot be attributed to India under this test as the company is neither a State organ nor is there any evidence reflecting that it acted under the control of the Indian state. Further, BellTrox’s conduct cannot be attributed to India under the much lower threshold of the ‘overall control’ test of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia’s in Tadic (which the ICJ later rejected in the Bosnian Genocide Case) either. Under the overall control test, even supporting, equipping, or financing a non-state actor could suffice for attribution.

In evaluating responsibility for non-state actors’ conduct, we must consider other standards seen in international law. The US response to the 9/11 attacks marked a shift from the traditional responsibility thresholds towards an ‘indirect responsibility’ criterion. This threshold can be inferred from the communication of the US to the UN Security Council, in establishing a right of self-defense. The US focused on an ‘unwillingness’ standard, highlighting the Taliban regime’s refusal to change its policy towards Al Qaeda despite having control over large areas where it operated. However, in invoking this standard, the US emphasized that the Taliban gave some degree of support to Al Qaeda over and above mere sanctuary.

Although this theory of indirect or vicarious responsibility does not have enough support to constitute customary international law, it does find some backing in the Corfu Channel judgment. The ICJ held that States ought not to allow their territory to be used in a way that endangers other States. This idea has developed in relation to terrorist activities, whereby the Friendly Relations Declaration as well as UN Security Council  Resolution 1373 demand that States deny safe haven to terrorist activities.

Jason Healey expands on such a standard of passive responsibility, focussing on a State’s accountability for fostering an environment where attacks could occur instead of “shrinking the sanctuaries from where criminals act with impunity.” ICJ’s Tehran judgment also supports the proposition that a State’s failure to take appropriate steps to prevent violations could render it responsible for the wrongful conduct.

If we were to apply this broad threshold, it is conceivable that BellTrox’s conduct could be attributed to India. However, a State cannot be held responsible for all acts perpetrated within its territory. Thus, a more ideal starting point of assigning State responsibility for non-State actors’ conduct in cyberspace should involve combining the aforementioned standard with the ‘due diligence’ principle. Accordingly, attribution would entail a two-step determination. First, ascertaining a State’s unwillingness to prevent a non-state actor’s illegal conduct despite being in a position to do so. Second, whether the State exercised reasonable due diligence in attempting to prevent the conduct. A failure in either could render the State internationally responsible. 

Scholars have suggested specific guidelines for due diligence, including enacting criminal law against the commission of cyber-attacks, instituting good-faith investigations and prosecution, and cooperation with victim States. The 2015 Report of the Group of Government Experts (GGE) calls upon States to respond to requests for mitigating malicious ICT activity arising out of their territory. The GGE report highlights that knowledge plays a role in determining attributability and States have a due diligence obligation towards post-facto mitigation of identified unlawful cyber activity emanating from their territory. 

As Healey emphasizes– unfortunately, in cyberspace, States do not expect other States to exercise the same degree of control over their subjects; and the international community considers States helpless in mitigating cyber attacks originating from their territory.  However, moving away from a narrow attribution requirement, victim States could push origin States towards taking well-established steps for mitigating attacks and ensuring prosecution to avoid responsibility for wrongful conduct.

3. SOVEREIGNTY AND NON-INTERVENTION 

The second prong of State responsibility is the requirement of the breach of a State’s international obligation. As per the UN GGE’s 2013 and 2015 reports, States are, in principle, at a consensus as to the application of the principles of sovereignty and non-intervention in cyberspace. In essence, the principle of State sovereignty relates to a State’s authority over its territorial integrity, sovereign functions, and political independence to the exclusion of others. The prohibition on unlawful intervention derives from the principle of sovereignty, and as outlined by the ICJ in Nicaragua, points to the coercion of one State by another in matters within the former’s sovereignty.

The first element of intervention, i.e., ‘coercion’, refers to an attempt to influence an outcome in the target state, depriving the target state of control over the ‘functions inherent in sovereignty’. An  example of coercive behavior could be the use of cyberspace to compel another state to adopt a particular legislation. This understanding under the Tallinn Manual is broadened to include all kinds of coercive acts designed to force a state to act, or not act, in a particular manner. 

It is unlikely that international law, as it stands, would find cyber-operations like BellTrox’s to be coercive. Although targeting of eminent private groups and advocacy organizations may point towards an attempt to influence US policy, it cannot be concluded that the operations or the information gathered could have pressurized the US government to legislate in a particular manner. 

The second element of intervention is that the coercive behaviour must be directed towards the ‘matters in which a State is permitted to decide freely’. The Friendly Relations Declaration defines an intervention as interference in the State’s personality or against its political, economic, and cultural elements. The Tallinn Manual 2.0 bases violation of sovereignty on the usurpation of an inherently governmental function through interference in matters within the domaine reserve of the State.

However, to engage the non-intervention principle, the operations must be directed at the State’s practical ability to exercise its sovereign function. Thus, the NotPetya attacks attributed to Russia, which targeted Ukraine’s financial system, transport and energy facilities have been considered violations of international law by the UK and its allies. However, a spear-phishing campaign attacking private Universities and NGOs or the WannaCry ransomware attack attempting to extort hard currency from users were not considered as such. The US called the alleged Russian hacking of the Democratic National Congress an ‘attempt to interfere with its election process’, with Department of State’s Legal Adviser Brian Egan categorizing it “a clear violation of the rule of non-intervention.”

In contrast, Belltrox’s alleged hacker-for-hire scheme appears to target private persons, institutions, and advocacy firms without directly interfering in sovereign functions. Even if BellTrox’s actions are considered as attempts to influence US policy, public interest advocacy and policy research are not exclusively governmental functions. Moreover, espionage against private organizations does not preclude a State from deciding freely on sovereign matters. Resultantly, it is unlikely that BellTrox’s operations would ipso facto constitute an internationally wrongful act of intervention.  

4. CONCLUSION 

The BellTrox problem highlights the need to move away from the traditional attribution fixation to hold States accountable for mitigating cyber-attacks. The conventional understanding of internationally wrongful acts only takes into account the nature of kinetic warfare and interventions in other States, thus failing to account for the ability of non-State actors to cause similar damage when shielded and given a safe haven by States. Therefore, instead of the ‘effective control’ and ‘overall control’ tests, a shift towards the theory of ‘indirect responsibility’, in combination with a due diligence standard for states, would be more effective in the cyber world. 

Applying such a test, if India did provide a safe haven to BellTrox, in that it ignored the threat or was unwilling to mitigate it despite knowledge of malicious cyber-activities, these activities could be attributed to India. Further, on account of the due diligence requirement, a State’s failure to take appropriate action on intimation by a victim State would strengthen the latter’s claim for affixing responsibility. 

In regard to intervention in sovereign matters, the expanded understanding in Nicaragua and the Tallinn Manual reflects that a direct attempt to cause a change in another State’s law or policy would constitute an unlawful intervention. However, the problem in the current scenario lies in showing that BellTrox could use the information gathered to coerce the US to act towards a particular objective. Indirectly influencing the actions of private individuals and advocacy organizations might not restrict the State in its sovereign functions and hence, is unlikely to constitute intervention. 

The BellTrox case outlines multiple gaps in international law with respect to cyberspace. Although existing law might not hold States internationally responsible for non-state actors’ private cyber operations originating from within their territory, victim States must invoke the accountability of origin States for mitigating cyber threats and ensuring prosecution. Further, pressure by the international community on States to conform to their due diligence obligations would be a substantive move in the right direction.

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*Views expressed in the blog are personal and should not be attributed to the institution.

Technology and National Security Law Reflection Series Paper 5: Legality of Cyber Weapons Under International Law

Siddharth Gautam^*

About the Author: The author is a 2020 graduate of National Law University, Delhi. 

Editor’s note: This post is part of the Reflection Series showcasing exceptional student essays from CCG-NLUD’s Seminar Course on Technology & National Security Law. In the present essay, the author reflects upon the following question: 

What are cyber weapons? Are they cyber weapons subject to any regulation under contemporary rules of international law? Explain with examples.

Introducing Cyber Weapons

In simple terms weapons are tools that harm humans or aim to harm the human body. In ancient times nomads used pointing tools to hunt and prey. Today’s world is naturally more advanced than that. In conventional methods of warfare, modern tools of weapons include rifles, grenades, artillery, missiles, etc. But in recent years the definition of warfare has changed immeasurably after the advancement of the internet and wider information and communication technologies (“ICT”). In this realm methods and ways of warfare are undergoing change. As internet technology develops we observe the advent/use of cyber weapons to carry out cyber warfare.

Cyber warfare through weapons that are built using technological know-how are low cost tools. Prominent usage of these tools is buttressed by wide availability of computer resources. Growth in the information technology (“IT”) industry and relatively cheap human resource markets have a substantial effect on the cost of cyber weapons which are capable of infiltrating other territories with relative ease. The aim of cyber weapons is to cause physical or psychological harm either by threat or material damage using computer codes or malware.

2007 Estonia Cyber Attack

For example during the Estonia –Russia conflict the conflict arose after the Soldier memorial was being shifted to the outskirts of Estonia. There was an uproar in the Russian speaking population over this issue. On 26^th and 27^th April, 2007 the capital saw rioting, defacing of property and numerous arrests.

On the same Friday cyber attacks were carried out using low tech methods like Ping, Floods and simple Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks. Soon thereafter on 30^th April, 2007 the scale and scope of the cyber attack increased sharply. Actors used botnets and were able to deploy large scale distributed denial of service (D-DoS) attacks to compromise 85 thousand computer systems and severely compromised the entire Estonian cyber and computer landscape. The incident caused widespread concerns/panic across the country.

Other Types of Cyber Weapons

Another prominent type of cyber weapon is HARM i.e. High-speed Anti Radiation missiles. It is a tactical air-to-surface anti radiation missile which can target electronic transmissions emitted from surface-to-air radar systems. These weapons are able to recognise the pulse repetition of enemy frequencies and accordingly search for the suitable target radar. Once it is visible and identified as hostile it will reach its radar antenna or transmitter target, and cause significant damage to those highly important targets. A prominent example of its usage is in the Syrian–Israel context. Israel launched cyber attacks against the Syrian Air defence system by blinding it. It attacked their Radar station in order not to display any information of Airplanes reaching their operators. 

A third cyber weapon worth analysing can be contextualised via the Stuxnet worm that sabotaged Iran’s nuclear programme by slowing the speed of its uranium reactors via fake input signals. It is alleged that the US and Israel jointly conducted this act of cyber warfare to damage Iran’s Nuclear programme.

In all three of the aforementioned cases, potential cyber weapons were used to infiltrate and used their own technology to conduct cyber warfare. Other types of cyber risks emerge from semantic attacks which are otherwise known as social engineering attacks. In such attacks perpetrators amend the information stored in a computer system and produce errors without the user being aware of the same. It specifically pertains to human interaction with information generated by a computer system, and the way that information may be interpreted or perceived by the user. These tactics can be used to extract valuable or classified information like passwords, financial details, etc. 

HACKERS (PT. 2) by Ifrah Yousuf. Licensed under CC BY 4.0.From CyberVisuals.org, a project of the Hewlett Foundation Cyber Initiative.

Applicable Landscape Under International Law

Now the question that attracts attention is whether there are any laws to regulate, minimise or stop the aforementioned attacks by the use of cyber weapons in International law? To answer this question we can look at a specific branch of Public international law; namely International Humanitarian law (“IHL”). IHL deals with armed conflict situations and not cyber attacks (specifically). IHL “seeks to moderate the conduct of armed conflict and to mitigate the suffering which it causes”. This statement itself comprises two major principles used in the laws of war.

Jus ad Bellum – the principle which determines whether countries have a right to resort to war through an armed conflict,

Jus in bello– the principle which governs the conduct of the countries’ soldiers/States itself which are engaging in war or an armed conflict. 

Both principles are subjected to the Hague and Geneva Conventions with Additional Protocol-1 providing means and ways as to how the warfare shall be conducted. Nine other treaties help safeguard and protect victims of war in armed conflict. The protections envisaged in the Hague and Geneva conventions are for situations concerning injuries, death, or in some cases  damage and/or destruction of property. If we analyse logically, cyber warfare may result in armed conflict through certain weapons, tools and techniques like Stuxnet, Trojan horse, Bugs, DSOS, malware HARM etc. The use of such weapons may ultimately yield certain results. Although computers are not a traditional weapon its use can still fulfil conditions which attract the applicability of provisions under the IHL.

Another principle of importance is Martens Clause. This clause says that even if some cases are not covered within conventional principles like humanity; principles relating to public conscience will apply to the combatants and civilians as derived from the established customs of International law. Which means that attacks shall not see the effects but by how they were employed

The Clause found in the Preamble to the Hague Convention IV of 1907 asserts that “even in cases not explicitly covered by specific agreements, civilians and combatants remain under the protection and authority of principles of international law derived from established custom, principles of humanity, and from the dictates of public conscience.” In other words, attacks should essentially be judged on the basis of their effects, rather than the means employed in the attack being the primary factor.

Article 35 says that “In any armed conflict, the right of the Parties to the conflict to choose methods or means of warfare is not unlimited. It is prohibited to employ weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare of a nature to cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering”

The above clause means that the action of armed forces should be proportionate to the actual military advantage sought to be achieved. In simple words “indiscriminate attacks” shall not be undertaken to cause loss of civilian life and damage to civilians’ property in relation to the advantage.

Conclusion

Even though the terms of engagement vis-a-vis kinetic warfare is changing, the prospect of the potential of harm from cyber weapons could match the same. Instead of guns there are computers and instead of bullets there is malware, bugs, D-DOS etc. Some of the replacement of one type of weapon with another is caused by the fact that there are no explicit provisions in law that outlaw cyber warfare, independently or in war.

The principles detailed in the previous section must necessarily apply to cyber warfare because it limits the attacker’s ability to cause excessive collateral damage. On the same note cyber weapons are sui generis like the nuclear weapons that upshot in the significance to that of traditional weapons

Another parallel is that in cyber attacks often there are unnecessary sufferings and discrimination in proportionality and the same goes for  traditional armed conflict. Therefore, both should be governed by the principles of IHL. 

In short, if the cyber attacks produce results in the same way as kinetic attacks do, they will be subject to IHL.

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*The views expressed in the blog are personal and should not be attributed to the institution.

Introducing the Reflection Series on CCG’s Technology and National Security Law and Policy Seminar Course

In February 2022, CCG-NLUD will commence the latest edition of its Seminar Course on Technology and National Security Law and Policy (“the Seminar Course”). The Seminar Course is offered to interested 4th and 5th year students who are enrolled in the B.A. LL.B. (Hons.) programme at the National Law University, Delhi. The course is set against the backdrop of the rapidly evolving landscape of international security issues, and concomitant challenges and opportunities presented by emerging technologies.

National security law, viewed as a discrete discipline of study, emerges and evolves at the intersection of constitutional law; domestic criminal law and its implementation in surveillance; counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations; international law including the Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC) and international human rights law; and foreign policy within the ever-evolving contours of international politics.

Innovations and technological advancements in cyberspace and next generation technologies serve as a jumping off point for the course since they have opened up novel national security issues at the digital frontier. New technologies have posed new legal questions, introduced uncertainty within settled legal doctrines, and raised several legal and policy concerns. Understanding that law schools in India have limited engagement with cyber and national security issues, this Seminar Course attempts to fill this knowledge gap.

The Course was first designed and launched by CCGNLUD in 2018. In 2019, the Seminar Course was re-designed with the help of expert consultations to add new dimensions and debates surrounding national security and emerging technologies. The redesign was meant to ground the course in interdisciplinary paradigms in a manner which allows students to study the domain through practical considerations like military and geo-political strategy. The revised Seminar Course engages more  deeply with third world approaches which helps situate several issues within the rubric of international relations and geopolitics. This allows students to holistically critique conventional precepts of the international world order.  

The revamped Seminar Course was relaunched in the spring semester of 2020. Owing to the sudden countrywide lockdown in the wake of COVID-19, most sessions shifted online. However, we managed to navigate these exigencies with the support of our allies and the resolve of our students.

In adopting an interdisciplinary approach, the Seminar Course delves into debates at the intersection of national security law and policy, and emerging technologies, with an emphasis on cybersecurity and cyberwarfare. Further, the Course aims to:

1. Recognize and develop National Security Law as a discrete discipline of legal studies, and
2. Impart basic levels of cybersecurity awareness and inculcate good information security practices among tomorrow’s lawyers.

The Technology and National Security Seminar Reflection Paper Series (“The Reflection Series”) is meant to serve as a mirror of key takeaways and student learnings from the course. It will be presented as a showcase of exceptional student essays which were developed and informed by classroom discussions during the 2020 and 2021 editions of the Seminar Course. The Reflection Series also offers a flavour of the thematic and theoretical approaches the Course adopts in order to stimulate structured discussion and thought among the students. A positive learning from these two editions is that students demonstrated considerable intellectual curiosity and had the freedom to develop their own unique understanding and solutions to contemporary issues—especially in the context of cyberspace and the wider ICT environments. Students were prescribed atypical readings and this allowed them to consider typical issues in domains like international law through the lens of developing countries. Students were allowed to revisit the legitimacy of traditional sources of authority or preconceived notions and assumptions which underpin much of the orthodox thinking in geostrategic realms like national security.

CCG-NLUD presents the Reflection Series with a view to acknowledge and showcase some of the best student pieces we received and evaluated for academic credit. We thank our students for their unwavering support and fruitful engagement that makes this course better and more impactful.

Starting January 5, 2022, select reflection papers will be published three times a week. This curated series is meant to showcase different modules and themes of engagement which came up during previous iterations of the course. It will demonstrate that CCG-NLUD designs the course in a way which covers the broad spectrum of issues which cover topics at the intersection of national security and emerging technology. Specifically, this includes a showcase of (i) conceptual theory and strategic thinking, (ii) national security through an international and geostrategic lens, and (iii) national security through a domestic lens.

Here is a brief glimpse of what is to come in the coming weeks:

1. Reimagining Philosophical and Theoretical Underpinnings of National Security and Military Strategy (January 5-12, 2022)

Our first reflection paper is written by Kushagra Kumar Sahai (Class of ’20) in which he evaluates whether Hugo Grotius, commonly known as the father of international law owing to his seminal work on the law of war and peace, is better described as an international lawyer or a military strategist for Dutch colonial expansion.

Our second reflection paper is a piece written by Manaswini Singh (Class of ’20). Manaswini provides her take on Edward Luttwak’s critique of Sun Tzu’s Art of War as a book of ‘stratagems’ or clever tricks, rather than a book of strategy. In a separate paper (third entry), Manaswini also undertakes the task of explaining the relationship between technological developments and the conduct of war through the lens of the paradoxical logic of strategy.

Our fourth reflection paper is by Animesh Choudhary (Class of ’21) on Redefining National Security. Animesh, in his submission, points out several fallacies in the current understanding of national security and pushes for “Human Security” as an alternative and more appropriate lens for understanding security issues in the 21^st century.

2. International Law, Emerging Technologies and Cyberspace (January 14-24, 2022)

In our fifth reflection paper, Siddharth Gautam (Class of ’20) explores whether cyber weapons could be subjected to any regulation under contemporary rules of international law.

Our sixth reflection paper is written by Drishti Kaushik (Class of ’21) on The Legality of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (“LAWS”). In this piece, she first presents an analysis of what constitutes LAWS. She then attempts to situate modern systems of warfare like LAWS and its compliance with traditional legal norms as prescribed under international humanitarian laws.

Our seventh reflection paper is written by Karan Vijay (Class of ’20) on ‘Use of Force in modern times: Sisyphus’ first world ‘boulder’. Karan examines whether under international law, a mere threat of use of force by a state against another state would give rise to a right of self-defence. In another piece (eighth entry), Karan writes on the authoritative value of interpretations of international law expressed in texts like the Tallinn Manual with reference to Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice i.e. traditional sources of international law.

Our ninth reflection paper is written by Neeraj Nainani (Class of ’20), who offers his insights on the Legality of Foreign Influence Operations (FIOs) under International law. Neeraj’s paper, queries the legality of the FIOs conducted by adversary states to influence elections in other states through the use of covert information campaigns (such as conspiracy theories, deep fake videos, “fake news”, etc.) under the established principles of international law.

Our tenth reflection paper is written by Anmol Dhawan (Class of ’21). His contribution addresses the International Responsibility for Hackers-for-Hire Operations. He introduces us to the current legal issues in assigning legal responsibility to states for hacker-for-hire operations under the due diligence obligation in international law.

3. Domestic Cyber Law and Policy (January 28- February 4, 2022)

Our eleventh and twelfth reflection papers are two independent pieces written by Bharti (Class of ’20)and Kumar Ritwik (Class of ’20). These pieces evaluate whether the Government of India’s ongoing response to the COVID-19 pandemic could have benefited if the Government had invoked emergency provisions under the Constitution. Since the two pieces take directly opposing views, they collectively product a fascinating debate on the tradeoffs of different approaches.

Our thirteenth and fourteenth reflection papers have been written by Tejaswita Kharel (Class of ’20) and Shreyasi (Class of ’20). Both Tejaswita and Shreyasi interrogate whether the internet (and therefore internet access) is an enabler of fundamental rights, or whether access to the internet is a fundamental right unto itself. Their analysis rely considerably on the Indian Supreme Court’s judgement in Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India which related to prolonged government mandated internet restrictions in Kashmir.

We will close our symposium with a reflection paper by Romit Kohli (Class of ’21), on Data Localisation and National Security: Flipping the Narrative. He argues that the mainstream narrative around data localisation in India espouses a myopic view of national security. His contribution argues the need to go beyond this mainstream narrative and constructs a novel understanding of the link between national security and data localisation by taking into consideration the unintended and oft-ignored consequences of the latter on economic development.